Disturbance as a Crucial Process in Shaping the Modern Landscape When the Pieces of Mosaics Fall into Their Places

Disturbance as a Crucial Process in Shaping the Modern Landscape When the Pieces of Mosaics Fall into Their Places Of all the things that surround us, landscape seems by far the most stable of all; when looking beyond the horizon, one might think that years will pass, people will come and leave, but the mountains in the distance will always remain in their places.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Disturbance as a Crucial Process in Shaping the Modern Landscape: When the Pieces of Mosaics Fall into Their Places specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, this stability is only an illusion; according to the research results, the process known as disturbance shapes the landscape greatly. Because of the disturbance process, the landscape, especially its forest elements, maintain relative stability and display amazing diversity. As Turner, Gardner and O’Neill explain, â€Å"A disturbance is defined as a relatively discrete event that disrupts the structure of an ecosystem, community, or population and changes resource availabilit y or the physical environment† (Turner, Gardner O’Neill, 2001, 159). Therefore, any event within the specific ecosystem that leads to the gradual change of the latter can be classified as a disturbance. There have also been attempts to define an ecosystem disturbance as tectonic movement, which actually matches the key idea of a disturbance. However, it is essential to mention that a disturbance can be triggered not only by the movement of the tectonic blocks, but also by the factors that have much faster, though just as drastic effects, e.g., hurricanes, tsunami and storms. All in all, â€Å"the definition of disturbance is scale dependent,† as Turner, Gardner O’Neill (2001, 159) put it. While the above-mentioned disturbance processes doubtlessly have huge effect on the lives of a number of organisms, as well as on the shape of the landscape, it is still important to figure out why these phenomena are considered of great significance for the landscape e cology.Advertising Looking for essay on ecology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Since disturbances do not happen often, their impact can be viewed as accidental and not quite long-lasting. Therefore, disturbances definitely deserve a better look. The existing evidence shows that disturbances play a great role in shaping landscape: â€Å"Natural disturbances and those caused by human actions can promote plant and animal diversity by influencing the composition, age, size, edge characteristics, and distribution of stands across the landscape† (Voller Harrison, 2011, 23). Judging by the given statement, the effects of disturbances are not necessarily grandeur or induced by a cataclysm. At the same time, the patterns and scale of disturbance depends on the type of the landscape greatly, which makes disturbance and landscape mutually dependent. One of the major positive aspects of disturbance, by the way, is its selectiveness; according to the research data, disturbances do not capture an entire area – instead, they seize a certain part of it, depending on their scale. Thus, the positive effect of a disturbance is provided; once a disturbance could be observed in all corners of a specific area, the species within the given area would have been extinct, and the balance between certain elements of the landscape, e.g., the young and old segments of the chosen area would have been broken. It is also noteworthy that disturbances pass relatively unnoticed in certain landscapes. On the one hand, it might seem that the disturbances on a grand scale must shape any landscape considerably; however, the specifics of certain areas make the landscapes greatly resilient to any sort of disturbance. For example, in the places like desert, where the herbage is very scarce or completely absent, fires will not have a tangible effect.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Disturbance as a Crucial Process in Shaping the Modern Landscape: When the Pieces of Mosaics Fall into Their Places specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As Turner, Gardner and O’Neill say, â€Å"Landscape position appears to influence susceptibility to disturbance when the disturbance itself has a distinct directionality (e.g., hurricane tracks) such that some locations are usually ore exposed than the others† (Turner, Gardner O’Neill, 2001, 165). Unlike one might have thought, disturbances are not chaotic; they have their own specific patterns that can be researched and, thus, predicted with sufficient precision. Depending on the specifics of the area, the patterns of disturbances may vary. Among the most well known factors that influence the disturbance patterns the area of the patch must be named. While a smaller area soon becomes completely engulfed by a certain disturbance, larger areas do not allow a disturbance to spread further ; with many obstacles on its way, including mountains, canyons, rivers, etc., which actually make another factor, i.e., spatial distribution, a disturbance will most likely die out before it even reaches one third of the area. Finally, frequency and recurrence interval must be taken into account. While the latter means the mean time between the disturbance events and allows a specific area to renew and adapt to the changes brought on by the previous disturbance, the former is an approximate number of disturbances that happen in the given area within a certain amount of time (a year, as a rule) (Walker, 2011, 59). Generally speaking, the process of disturbance influences the landscape ecology positively and changes the landscape very slowly, which allows the latter to change so that all its elements, including the fauna, could adapt to the new environment without considerable problems.Advertising Looking for essay on ecology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In addition, it is important to keep in mind that disturbances also characterize a landscape to a considerable extent. Literature Cited Turner, M. G., R. H. Gardner, and R. V. O’Neill, 2001. Landscape ecology in theory and practice. Springer, New York, NY. Voller, J. S. Harrison, 2011. Conservation biology principles for forested landscapes. UBC Press, Vancouver, CA. Walker, L. R., 2011. The biology of disturbed habitats. Oxford University Press, New York.

Battle of Guadalcanal in World War II

Battle of Guadalcanal in World War II Battle of Guadalcanal Conflict Date The Battle of Guadalcanal began on August 7, 1942, during World War II (1939-1945). Armies Commanders Allies Major General Alexander Vandergrift Major General Alexander Patchup to 60,000 men Japanese Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake General Hitoshi Imamura rising to 36,200 men Operation Watchtower In the months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Allied forces suffered a string of reverses as Hong Kong, Singapore, and the Philippines were lost and the Japanese swept through the Pacific. Following the propaganda victory of the Doolittle Raid, the Allies succeeded in checking the advance of the Japanese at the Battle of the Coral Sea. The following month they won a decisive victory at the  Battle of Midway which saw four Japanese carriers sunk in exchange for USS Yorktown (CV-5). Capitalizing on this triumph, the Allies began to move to the offensive in the summer of 1942. Conceived by Admiral Ernest King, Commander-in-Chief, US Fleet, Operation Watchtower called for Allied troops to land in the Solomon Islands at Tulagi, Gavutu–Tanambogo, and Guadalcanal. Such an operation would protect the Allied lines of communication to Australia and allow for the capture of a Japanese airfield then under construction at Lunga Point, Guadalcanal. To oversee the operation, the South Pacific Area was created with Vice Admiral Robert Ghormley in command and reporting to Admiral Chester Nimitz at Pearl Harbor. The ground forces for the invasion would be under the leadership of Major General Alexander A. Vandegrift, with his 1st Marine Division forming the bulk of the 16,000 troops involved. In preparation for the operation, Vandegrifts men were shifted from the United States to New Zealand and forward bases were established or reinforced in the New Hebrides and New Caledonia. Assembling near Fiji on July 26, the Watchtower force consisted of 75 ships led by Vice Admiral Frank J. Fletcher with Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner overseeing the amphibious forces. Going Ashore Approaching the area in poor weather, the Allied fleet remained undetected by the Japanese. On August 7, the landings began with 3,000 Marines assaulting the seaplane bases at Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo. Centered on Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edsons 1st Marine Raider Battalion and the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines, the Tulagi force was compelled to disembark approximately 100 yards from the beach due to submerged coral reefs.   Wading ashore against no resistance, the Marines began securing the island and engaged enemy forces led by Captain Shigetoshi Miyazaki. Though Japanese resistance was fierce on both Tulagi and Gavutu-Tanambogo, the islands were secured on August 8 and 9 respectively. The situation on Guadalcanal was different as Vandegrift landed with 11,000 men against minimal opposition. Pushing forward the next day, they advanced to the Lunga River, secured the airfield, and drove off the Japanese construction troops that were in the area. The Japanese retreated west to the Matanikau River. In their haste to retreat, they left behind large quantities of food and construction equipment. At sea, Fletchers carrier aircraft incurred losses as they battled Japanese land-based aircraft from Rabaul. These attacks also resulted in the sinking of a transport, USS George F. Elliott, and a destroyer, USS Jarvis. Concerned about aircraft losses and his ships fuel supplies, he withdrew from the area on the evening of August 8. That evening, Allied naval forces suffered a severe defeat at the nearby Battle of Savo Island. Caught by surprise,  Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley screening force lost four heavy cruisers. Unaware that Fletcher was withdrawing, the Japanese commander, Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa, departed the area after the victory fearing air attack once the sun rose   His air cover gone, Turner withdrew on August 9 despite the fact that not all of the troops and supplies had been landed (Map). The Battle Begins Ashore, Vandegrifts men worked to form a loose perimeter and completed the airfield on August 18. Dubbed Henderson Field in memory of Marine aviator Lofton Henderson who had been killed at Midway, it began receiving aircraft two days later. Critical to the islands defense, the aircraft at Henderson became known as the Cactus Air Force (CAF) in reference to Guadalcanals code name. Short on supplies, the Marines initially possessed about two weeks worth of food when Turner departed. Their situation was further worsened by the onset of dysentery and a variety of tropical diseases. During this time, the Marines began patrolling against the Japanese in the Matanikau Valley with mixed results. In response to the Allied landings, Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake, commander of the 17th Army at Rabaul, began shifting troops to the island. The first of these, under Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki, landed at Taivu Point on August 19. Advancing west, they attacked the Marines early on August 21 and were repulsed with heavy losses at the Battle of the Tenaru. The Japanese directed additional reinforcements to the area which resulted in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons. Though the battle was a draw, it forced Rear Admiral Raizo Tanakas reinforcement convoy to turn back. As the CAF controlled the skies around the island during daylight hours, the Japanese were compelled to deliver supplies and troops to the island using destroyers. Holding Guadalcanal Fast enough to reach the island, unload, and escape before dawn, the destroyer supply line was dubbed the Tokyo Express. Though effective, this method precluded the delivery of heavy equipment and weapons. His troops suffering from tropical diseases and food shortages, Vandegrift was reinforced and re-supplied in late-August and early-September. Having built up sufficient strength, Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi attacked the Allied position at Lunga Ridge, south of Henderson Field, on September 12. In two nights of brutal fighting, the Marines held, forcing the Japanese to retreat. On September 18, Vandegrift was further reinforced, though the carrier USS Wasp was sunk covering the convoy. An American thrust against the Matanikau was checked late in the month, but actions in early October inflicted heavy losses on the Japanese and delayed their next offensive against the Lunga perimeter. With the struggle raging, Ghormley was convinced to dispatch US Army troops to aid Vandegrift. This coincided with a large Express run scheduled for October 10/11. On that evening, the two forces collided and Rear Admiral Norman Scott won a victory at the Battle of Cape Esperance. Not to be deterred, the Japanese sent a large convoy towards the island on October 13. To provide cover, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto dispatched two battleships to bombard Henderson Field. Arriving after midnight on October 14, they succeeded in destroying 48 of CAFs 90 aircraft. Replacements were quickly flown to the island and CAF began attacks on the convoy that day but to no effect. Reaching Tassafaronga on the islands western shore, the convoy began unloading the next day. Returning, CAF aircraft were more successful, destroying three cargo ships. Despite their efforts, 4,500 Japanese troops landed. The Battle Grinds On Reinforced, Hyakutake had around 20,000 men on Guadalcanal. He believed Allied strength to be around 10,000 (it was actually 23,000) and moved forward with another offensive. Moving east, his men assaulted the Lunga Perimeter for three days between October 23-26. Dubbed the Battle of Henderson Field, his attacks were thrown back with massive losses numbering 2,200-3,000 killed against less than 100 Americans. As the fighting was concluding, American naval forces now led by Vice Admiral William Bull Halsey (Ghormley was relieved on October 18) engaged the Japanese at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. Though Halsey lost the carrier USS Hornet, his men inflicted severe losses on the Japanese aircrews. The fight marked the last time that either sides carriers would clash in the campaign. Exploiting the victory at Henderson Field, Vandegrift began an offensive across the Matanikau. Though initially successful, it was halted when Japanese forces were discovered to the east near Koli Point. In a series of battles around Koli in early November, American forces defeated and drove off the Japanese. As this action was underway, two companies of the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson landed at Aola Bay on November 4. The next day, Carlson was ordered to move overland back to Lunga (approx. 40 miles) and engage enemy forces along the way. During the Long Patrol, his men killed around 500 Japanese. At Matanikau, Tokyo Express runs aided Hyakutake in strengthening his position and turning back American attacks on November 10 and 18. Victory at Last As a stalemate ensued on land, the Japanese made efforts to build up strength for an offensive in late November. To aid in this, Yamamoto made available eleven transports for Tanaka to transport 7,000 men to the island. This convoy would be covered by a force including two battleships which would bombard Henderson Field and destroy the CAF. Aware that the Japanese were moving troops to the island, the Allies planned a similar move. On the night of November 12/13, the Allied covering force encountered the Japanese battleships in the opening actions of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. Taking off on November 14, CAF and aircraft from USS Enterprise spotted and sunk seven of Tanakas transports. Though taking heavy losses the first night, American warships turned the tide on the night of November 14/15. Tanakas remaining four transports beached themselves at Tassafaronga before dawn, but were quickly destroyed by Allied aircraft. The failure to reinforce the island led to the abandonment of the November offensive. On November 26, Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura took command of the newly created Eighth Area Army at Rabaul which included Hyakutakes command. Though he initially began planning for attacks at Lunga, the Allied offensive against Buna on New Guinea led to a shift in priorities as it presented a greater threat to Rabaul. As result, offensive operations on Guadalcanal were suspended. Though the Japanese won a naval victory at Tassafaronga on November 30, the supply situation on the island was becoming desperate. On December 12, the Imperial Japanese Navy recommended that the island be abandoned. The army concurred and on December 31 the Emperor endorsed the decision. As the Japanese planned their withdraw, changes occurred on Guadalcanal with Vandegrift and the battle weary 1st Marine Division departing and Major General Alexander Patchs XIV Corps taking over. On December 18, Patch began an offensive against Mount Austen. This stalled on January 4, 1943 due to strong enemy defenses. The attack was renewed on January 10 with troops also striking ridges known as the Seahorse and the Galloping Horse. By January 23, all objectives had been secured. As this fight was concluding, the Japanese had begun their evacuation which was dubbed Operation Ke. Unsure of Japanese intentions, Halsey sent Patch reinforcements which led to the naval Battle of Rennell Island on January 29/30. Concerned about a Japanese offensive, Patch did not aggressively pursue the retreating enemy. By February 7, Operation Ke was complete with 10,652 Japanese soldiers having left the island. Realizing the enemy had departed, Patch declared the island secured on February 9. Aftermath During the campaign to take Guadalcanal, the Allied losses numbered around 7,100 men, 29 ships, and 615 aircraft. Japanese casualties were approximately 31,000 killed, 1,000 captured, 38 ships, and 683-880 aircraft. With the victory at Guadalcanal, the strategic initiative passed to the Allies for the remainder of the war. The island was subsequently developed into a major base for supporting future Allied offensives. Having exhausted themselves in the campaign for the island, the Japanese had weakened themselves elsewhere which contributed to the successful conclusion of Allied campaigns on New Guinea. The first sustained Allied campaign in the Pacific, it provided a psychological boost for the troops as well as led to the development of combat and logistical systems that would be used in the Allies march across the Pacific. With the island secured, operations continued on New Guinea and the Allies began their island hopping campaign towards Japan.